Evolution — Practice Questions with Answers

Q1.

Who proposed the theory of natural selection?

• A Lamarck
• B Mendel
• C Darwin
• D Watson

Q2.

What experiment demonstrated that amino acids can form from inorganic molecules?

• A Pasteur experiment
• B Miller-Urey experiment
• C Mendel experiment
• D Meselson-Stahl experiment

Q3.

What are homologous organs?

• A Organs that share an identical function but arose from a largely different evolutionary origin altogether, unrelated in ancestry
• B Organs with same basic structure and evolutionary origin but different functions (e.g., forelimbs of whale, bat, human, frog)
• C Identical organs found largely unchanged across nearly every animal species and phylum studied so far
• D Organs that have mostly lost their original ancestral function gradually over a long span of evolutionary time

Q4.

What are analogous organs?

• A Organs that share the same evolutionary origin but differ noticeably in their function and form
• B Organs with different evolutionary origin but same function (e.g., wings of birds and insects)
• C Organs found mainly within the vertebrate animal lineage specifically, rarely elsewhere
• D Vestigial organs retained largely unchanged from a distant common ancestor over time

Q5.

What are vestigial organs? Give an example in humans.

• A Organs that perform critically important and largely indispensable physiological functions important for daily survival under usual circumstances
• B Reduced, non-functional remnants of organs that were functional in ancestors: human appendix, coccyx (tailbone), ear muscles, body hair, wisdom teeth
• C Organs that develop and gradually mature mainly after birth, throughout the early years of childhood growth according to most researchers in the majority of cases studied
• D Newly evolved organs that have appeared fairly recently and spread within the human evolutionary lineage as widely reported in standard practice

Q6.

What is natural selection?

• A Random, undirected change in allele frequencies that occurs largely independently of environmental fitness pressures under most conditions encountered
• B Process where organisms with traits better suited to the environment survive and reproduce more, passing traits to offspring
• C Mutation occurring at a roughly identical, fixed rate across nearly every gene in the entire genome as frequently observed in practice
• D Deliberate selective breeding of organisms carried out intentionally and methodically by human breeders in many documented cases

Q7.

What does 'survival of the fittest' mean in evolutionary terms?

• A The physically strongest individuals in a population are generally most able to survive long enough to reproduce according to conventional understanding
• B Organisms best adapted to their environment have highest reproductive success ('fittest' = most reproductively successful, not necessarily strongest)
• C The fastest-moving animals in a population tend to most consistently escape predation and ultimately survive in routine practice overall in most cases
• D All organisms within a population tend to survive and reproduce at roughly similar, fairly unvarying rates under typical conditions according to standard textbooks

Q8.

What is speciation?

• A The eventual and largely permanent extinction of an already long-established species over time, without forming anything new
• B Formation of new and distinct species from an existing species through the accumulation of differences
• C The gradual domestication and careful selective breeding of wild animals over many generations by humans
• D The broader taxonomic classification and naming system applied generally to already well-known organisms

Q9.

What is the fossil record evidence for evolution?

• A Fossils consistently show very little detectable change in body form or structure across most known geological time periods studied in general practice as frequently described
• B Fossils show a progression of life forms from simple (older) to complex (newer), with transitional forms linking major groups (e.g., Archaeopteryx linking reptiles to birds)
• C Most fossils discovered to date come mainly from extremely recent geological time periods within the last few centuries in most textbook accounts during normal conditions
• D Fossils preserved in sedimentary rock layers are found to mostly contain remains of marine aquatic organisms as generally observed in typical laboratory settings under usual circumstances

Q10.

What was Lamarck's theory of evolution? Why was it incorrect?

• A Lamarck's proposal of inheritance of acquired characteristics was later found by most twentieth-century geneticists to be largely incorrect, despite some renewed interest in related epigenetic mechanisms according to most researchers
• B Lamarck proposed inheritance of acquired characteristics (use and disuse); giraffes stretched necks, offspring born with longer necks; incorrect because acquired physical changes are not encoded in DNA and not inherited
• C Lamarck actually proposed the mechanism of natural selection acting on heritable variation, a concept that Darwin later popularized and published in detail in the majority of cases studied as widely reported in standard practice
• D Lamarck argued throughout his writings that evolutionary change and species transformation rarely occurs within the natural living world, a view later revised significantly under most conditions encountered as frequently observed in practice

Q11.

What is convergent evolution?

• A Two closely related species gradually diverging in form and function from one shared recent common ancestor over time in many documented cases according to conventional understanding
• B Unrelated species independently evolving similar traits due to similar environmental pressures (e.g., dolphin and ichthyosaur streamlined body shape)
• C Two genetically identical twins developing together from a single fertilized zygote during early embryogenesis in routine practice overall in most cases
• D The gradual reduction in size and eventual loss of an ancestral trait observed within a single evolutionary lineage under typical conditions according to standard textbooks

Q12.

Which scientist is associated with the modern synthesis of evolution?

• A Lamarck alone, through his early theory describing inheritance of acquired characteristics observed in giraffes and similar animals in general practice as frequently described
• B A combination of scientists including Fisher, Haldane, Dobzhansky, Mayr, Simpson who synthesized Darwinian selection with Mendelian genetics in the 1930s-1940s
• C Watson and Crick alone, through their landmark 1953 discovery of the double helix structure of the DNA molecule in most textbook accounts during normal conditions
• D Mendel alone, through his original hybridization experiments conducted on garden pea plants in nineteenth-century Austria as generally observed in typical laboratory settings

Q13.

What is genetic drift?

• A The directed, seasonal migration pattern of animal populations moving regularly between distant seasonal habitats
• B Random change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events, especially significant in small populations
• C Mutation that is deliberately directed by the organism itself toward a specific, predetermined adaptive outcome
• D Natural selection acting with roughly similar strength and predictability across populations of varying sizes

Q14.

What is the geological time scale and which era did dinosaurs dominate?

• A Dinosaurs are sometimes mistakenly placed in the Cenozoic era, an interval of Earth's history that actually coincided with the worldwide rise of large placental mammals under usual circumstances
• B Geological time: Precambrian → Palaeozoic → Mesozoic (dinosaur age) → Cenozoic (mammals). Dinosaurs dominated the Mesozoic Era (252-66 million years ago), especially Triassic and Jurassic periods
• C Dinosaurs are sometimes mistakenly placed in the more recent Cenozoic era, occupying a brief geological interval shortly before modern humans first appeared on Earth according to most researchers
• D Dinosaurs are sometimes thought to have first appeared roughly one billion years ago, well back during the early Precambrian eon before complex life diversified in the majority of cases studied

Q15.

What is the 'out of Africa' hypothesis for human evolution?

• A Humans evolved largely independently and in parallel on every separate continent around the globe as widely reported in standard practice
• B Modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa ~200,000 years ago and then migrated worldwide, replacing or mixing with earlier Homo species
• C Humans evolved first mainly somewhere on the continent of Asia before later spreading elsewhere under most conditions encountered as frequently observed in practice
• D Humans evolved independently and separately within both Africa and Europe at roughly overlapping time periods in many documented cases

Q16.

What is Archaeopteryx significant for in evolution?

• A Archaeopteryx is sometimes mistaken for the very first true placental mammal known to appear within the fossil record according to conventional understanding in routine practice
• B A transitional fossil showing features of both reptiles (teeth, bony tail, claws) and birds (wings, feathers); bridges the gap between non-avian dinosaurs and modern birds
• C Archaeopteryx was actually an early jawless fish that some mistakenly believe lived in shallow Devonian period seas long before dinosaurs overall in most cases under typical conditions
• D Archaeopteryx is sometimes thought to show few transitional features, closely resembling mainly largely modern living bird species according to standard textbooks in general practice

Q17.

What is natural selection's requirement for heritable variation? Why is it essential?

• A Heritable variation is sometimes mistakenly thought not to be a necessary requirement for natural selection or biological evolution to occur as frequently described in most textbook accounts during normal conditions
• B Without heritable variation, all offspring would be identical; natural selection cannot act because there are no differences in traits to select for; mutations and sexual reproduction provide variation
• C Natural selection itself is generally understood by biologists to be the very process that directly creates new heritable genetic variation as generally observed in typical laboratory settings under usual circumstances
• D Spontaneous point mutations, rather than sexual reproduction or chromosomal recombination events, are sometimes assumed to be the main source of heritable variation according to most researchers in the majority of cases studied

Q18.

What is the biological species concept?

• A Species are defined mainly by their external physical appearance and visible morphological characteristics as widely reported in standard practice
• B Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Ernst Mayr, 1942)
• C Species are defined mainly by an overall genomic DNA sequence similarity percentage threshold under most conditions encountered as frequently observed in practice
• D Species are defined largely by the particular geographic location where a population happens to currently live in many documented cases according to conventional understanding

Q19.

What are the four major hominid ancestors on the path to modern humans?

• A Dryopithecus alone is sometimes mistakenly thought to represent the main lineage that led directly to anatomically modern Homo sapiens populations in routine practice overall in most cases
• B Major hominids: Australopithecus (4-2 mya, bipedal, small brain) → Homo habilis (2.5 mya, first tool use) → Homo erectus (1.8 mya, used fire, left Africa) → Homo sapiens (0.3 mya, modern)
• C Homo erectus alone is sometimes mistakenly described by some as the sole recognized direct ancestor within the human evolutionary lineage under typical conditions according to standard textbooks
• D Humans are sometimes mistakenly thought to have descended directly from modern, present-day living chimpanzee populations rather than a shared ancestor in general practice as frequently described

Q20.

What is the Hardy-Weinberg principle and what are its conditions?

• A Evolutionary change is sometimes mistakenly thought to proceed at a perfectly constant, fixed rate within nearly every natural population ever studied by researchers overall in most cases under typical conditions
• B In a large random-mating population with no mutation, migration, selection, or genetic drift, allele and genotype frequencies remain constant (p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1); deviations indicate evolution is occurring
• C Small, isolated populations are sometimes mistakenly thought to usually closely follow Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium predictions over many successive generations according to standard textbooks in general practice
• D The Hardy-Weinberg principle is sometimes mistakenly thought by some to apply specifically to flowering plant species, rarely extending to animal populations as frequently described in most textbook accounts

Q21.

What is allopatric speciation and give an example?

• A Speciation that is sometimes mistakenly thought to proceed without any geographic separation between gradually diverging populations, with isolation arising mainly from random mate choice within one territory during normal conditions as generally observed
• B Speciation caused by geographic isolation of populations (mountains, rivers, oceans); isolated populations diverge through different selection pressures, genetic drift, and mutation until reproductively isolated; example: Darwin finches on Galapagos Islands
• C Speciation that is sometimes mistakenly thought to occur mainly through sudden chromosome-doubling polyploidy events within a single generation, a mechanism documented mainly in plant lineages rather than animals like finches in typical laboratory settings
• D Speciation that is sometimes mistakenly thought to occur within one single, continuously interbreeding population sharing one largely unbroken gene pool, where gene flow between individuals rarely stops long enough for divergence under usual circumstances

Q22.

What is sympatric speciation and give an example?

• A Speciation that generally and highly requires substantial, long-lasting physical geographic barriers separating the populations involved, such as mountain ranges, wide rivers, or expanses of open ocean between the diverging groups
• B Speciation in the same geographic location without physical isolation; most common mechanism: polyploidy in plants (chromosome doubling creates instant reproductive barrier); also: ecological specialization, sexual selection
• C Sympatric speciation is understood by evolutionary biologists to be largely impossible to actually occur anywhere in nature, despite well-documented cases in cichlid fish and apple maggot flies suggesting otherwise
• D Sympatric speciation is understood to occur mainly within animal populations, having rarely once been observed in plants, even though polyploidy-driven plant speciation is actually one of its best-known examples

Q23.

What is genetic variation and what are its sources?

• A Genetic variation is sometimes mistakenly thought to arise mainly from random point mutations in the germline, with migration, recombination, and drift contributing little measurable diversity to a population according to most researchers in the majority of cases studied
• B Main sources: (1) Mutation (random changes in DNA sequence); (2) Sexual recombination during meiosis (crossing over, independent assortment); (3) Gene flow (migration); (4) Genetic drift (random fluctuations); variation is the raw material for evolution by natural selection
• C Mainly crossing-over and independent assortment during meiotic recombination are sometimes mistakenly thought to be the true sources of variation, excluding much contribution from mutation, migration, or drift across generations as widely reported in standard practice
• D Genetic variation is sometimes mistakenly thought to be inherently harmful, with natural selection acting mainly to remove it, rather than serving as the raw material that natural selection itself actually requires in order to function under most conditions encountered

Q24.

What is the Oparin-Haldane theory of origin of life?

• A Life is understood under this theory to have arrived on early Earth from outer space aboard comets or meteorites, with the necessary organic monomers having been largely assembled before ever reaching the planet's surface
• B Life arose from chemical evolution in the primitive ocean: simple inorganic molecules → organic monomers (abiotic synthesis) → polymers → protocells → first cells with self-replication; early Earth had reducing atmosphere (no O2)
• C Life is proposed under this theory to have usually existed on Earth in an unchanging steady state since the planet formed, with little chemical evolution of monomers, polymers, or protocells ever taking place in the primordial ocean
• D This theory holds that a divine creator directly and instantaneously created the first living cells on early Earth, without any gradual chemical evolution of simple molecules into self-replicating protocells over time

Q25.

What is the RNA world hypothesis?

• A RNA is sometimes mistakenly thought under this hypothesis to have evolved mainly after proteins had already established catalytic life processes, with protein enzymes catalyzing the first nucleic acid replication on early Earth as frequently observed in practice in many documented cases
• B RNA was the first self-replicating molecule before DNA; RNA can store genetic information AND catalyze reactions (ribozymes); later, DNA took over information storage (more stable) and proteins took over catalysis (more versatile); ribosomal RNA is a remnant of RNA world
• C DNA is sometimes mistakenly thought under this hypothesis to have evolved before RNA and to have been the original self-replicating molecule, serving as the genetic storage molecule long before RNA or any ribozyme appeared according to conventional understanding in routine practice
• D The RNA world hypothesis is sometimes mistakenly thought to have been comprehensively disproven by modern biochemical evidence, particularly by the discovery of catalytic ribozymes and the ribosome's RNA-based peptidyl transferase center overall in most cases under typical conditions

Q26.

What is adaptive radiation and give an example?

• A The slow, gradual evolution of a single ancestral species without any branching into separate descendant species, occurring uniformly across an unchanging environment with no new ecological niches ever becoming available
• B Rapid diversification of a single ancestral species into many species filling different ecological niches; example: Darwin finches on Galapagos, Australian marsupials, Hawaiian honeycreepers, East African cichlids
• C The widespread extinction of many previously diverse species following a sudden environmental catastrophe, an event typically followed by a long period of reduced diversity rather than rapid new species formation
• D The seasonal long-distance migration of animal populations between separate, geographically distant habitats, a pattern that produces no lasting change whatsoever in either body form or ecological niche occupied

Q27.

What molecular evidence supports evolution?

• A Little meaningful molecular evidence is sometimes mistakenly thought to exist to support evolutionary relationships among living organisms, since protein and DNA sequences are assumed to be largely uninformative about relatedness according to standard textbooks
• B Cytochrome c (protein sequence similarity tracks phylogeny), DNA/RNA sequence analysis, homologous genes (Hox genes in all bilaterians), shared pseudogenes, and endogenous retroviruses found at same genome locations across related species
• C Mainly the physical fossil record is sometimes considered valid evidence, with molecular sequence data offering little useful support, since comparing cytochrome c or Hox gene sequences is considered scientifically uninformative in general practice
• D Molecular sequence evidence is sometimes mistakenly thought to systematically contradict patterns seen in the fossil record, with shared pseudogenes and retroviral insertions pointing toward largely different phylogenetic trees as frequently described

Q28.

What is co-evolution and give an example?

• A A pattern in which one interacting species continues to evolve while its close partner species remains largely static, such that fig trees would change over time while their fig wasp pollinators stayed genetically frozen
• B Reciprocal evolutionary changes in two or more species that interact closely; each species acts as selective pressure on the other; example: fig tree and fig wasp, acacia and ants, flower shape and pollinator beak/tongue length
• C Direct competition for resources between two species that occurs without producing any evolutionary change, a relationship where neither competing species ever exerts any selective pressure on the other's traits
• D The seasonal migration patterns of bird species that have little measurable relationship to other species nearby, with little flower shape, pollinator beak length, or other co-adapted trait ever evolving in tandem

Q29.

What is the founder effect?

• A An effect named after and attributed to the historical founding fathers of evolutionary theory, commemorating figures such as Darwin and Wallace, rather than describing a population genetics phenomenon in most textbook accounts during normal conditions as generally observed
• B When a small group separates from a larger population and establishes a new colony; new population has reduced genetic diversity reflecting only the founders' alleles; can lead to different allele frequencies than parent population; example: Amish founder effect
• C The cumulative impact of ongoing habitat destruction on the overall genetic diversity of a large population, a slow process largely unrelated to colony founding, isolated subpopulations, or reduced allele sampling in typical laboratory settings under usual circumstances
• D Mutations that are sometimes mistakenly thought to arise mainly within the very first founding members, with few subsequent generations of the colony ever inheriting or being affected by such founder mutations according to most researchers in the majority of cases studied

Q30.

What is the bottleneck effect?

• A A slow, gradual reduction in overall population size that unfolds steadily across many successive generations, rather than a sudden, catastrophic population crash triggered abruptly by disease or habitat loss events as widely reported in standard practice under most conditions encountered
• B Drastic reduction in population size due to a catastrophic event (earthquake, disease, hunting); surviving population has reduced genetic diversity; subsequent evolution influenced by this reduced gene pool; example: cheetah (near extinction ~10,000 years ago, all nearly genetically identical)
• C The cumulative effect that ongoing migration between neighboring populations has on shared allele frequencies over time, a process of allele sharing through interbreeding rather than one driven by survivors of a crash event as frequently observed in practice in many documented cases according to conventional understanding
• D The cumulative effect that an elevated mutation rate has specifically within very small, isolated populations, attributing reduced genetic diversity to new mutation input rather than to the loss of surviving lineages over time in routine practice overall in most cases under typical conditions

Q31.

What is gene flow and how does it affect evolution?

• A Largely random, undirected changes in allele frequencies that occur independently of any migration event, a description that actually applies to genetic drift rather than to migration-driven gene flow itself
• B Movement of alleles between populations through migration; gene flow introduces new alleles into a population, increases genetic diversity, counters divergence between populations and can prevent speciation
• C Gene flow is understood to be the principal direct cause of new species formation through reproductive isolation, despite gene flow generally acting to homogenize populations and counteract divergence rather than to drive it
• D Gene flow is understood to be functionally identical to genetic drift, both describing mainly random allele change, though drift is driven by chance sampling while gene flow is driven specifically by the movement of individuals

Q32.

Explain the neutral theory of molecular evolution and how it differs from selectionist view.

• A All molecular mutations observed between species are sometimes thought to be strongly positively selected by natural selection, with genetic drift playing little meaningful role in fixing sequence differences
• B Neutral theory (Kimura, 1968): most molecular evolutionary changes are selectively neutral, fixed by genetic drift not natural selection; protein and DNA evolve at relatively constant rates (molecular clock)
• C All molecular mutations observed between species are sometimes thought to be uniformly harmful and actively selected against, a description that more closely matches a purifying-selection model than neutral theory
• D Neutral theory is sometimes thought to entirely reject genetic drift as an evolutionary mechanism, when Kimura's theory instead places genetic drift at the center of explaining molecular sequence evolution

Q33.

What is kin selection and Hamilton's rule?

• A Selection that specifically favors behaviors benefiting mainly largely unrelated individuals, the opposite of what kin selection theory actually predicts, which favors helping genetic relatives according to most researchers
• B Natural selection that favors behaviors increasing the reproductive success of relatives even at cost to the individual; Hamilton's rule: altruism evolves when rB > C, explaining eusociality in bees and ants
• C Kin selection is sometimes considered functionally identical to group selection theory, despite kin selection operating through individual relatedness coefficients rather than whole-group fitness in the majority of cases studied
• D Hamilton's rule is sometimes thought to apply mainly to flowering plant species, rarely to animal behavior, despite being formulated specifically to explain altruistic behaviors like eusociality as widely reported

Q34.

What is punctuated equilibrium and how does it differ from gradualism?

• A Both punctuated equilibrium and gradualism are sometimes considered largely identical evolutionary models, despite the two models differing sharply in predicting stasis-with-bursts versus continuous change in standard practice
• B Punctuated equilibrium (Gould and Eldredge, 1972): evolution consists of long periods of stasis (little change) punctuated by rapid speciation events; contrasts with gradualism (Darwin's view) of continuous gradual change
• C Punctuated equilibrium is sometimes thought to mean evolutionary change does not occur within any lineage, when in fact it describes long stasis interrupted by rapid bursts of speciation under most conditions encountered
• D Gradualism as originally proposed by Darwin is sometimes thought to be comprehensively disproven by the fossil record, when in reality it remains a valid complementary model some lineages follow as frequently observed in practice

Q35.

What is horizontal gene transfer and how does it complicate traditional evolutionary trees?

• A Gene flow that occurs specifically between members of the same species through ordinary sexual reproduction, a description of vertical inheritance rather than the mechanisms HGT actually uses
• B Transfer of genetic material between organisms other than by parent-to-offspring inheritance; occurs via conjugation, transformation, transduction; explains rapid spread of antibiotic resistance
• C Horizontal gene transfer is sometimes thought to be entirely impossible within bacterial populations, despite conjugation, transformation, and transduction being well-documented mechanisms driving it
• D Horizontal gene transfer is sometimes thought to occur mainly within plant species, rarely documented in bacteria, despite HGT being the principal route by which antibiotic resistance genes spread

Q36.

What is the endosymbiont theory and what evidence supports it?

• A Eukaryotic cells are sometimes proposed to have evolved directly from ancestral virus particles, despite viruses lacking the cellular machinery, ribosomes, and membranes that characterize mitochondria
• B Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living bacteria engulfed by a host cell and became permanent endosymbionts; evidence: double membrane, circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, binary fission
• C Mitochondria are sometimes proposed to have evolved directly from the cell nucleus rather than from any independent organism, despite possessing their own circular DNA and double membrane distinct from the nucleus
• D The endosymbiont theory is sometimes thought to remain a purely speculative idea lacking supporting evidence, when in fact double membranes and bacterial-like DNA provide strong corroborating evidence

Q37.

How does sexual selection differ from natural selection and what are its two mechanisms?

• A Sexual selection and natural selection are sometimes considered largely identical processes, despite sexual selection specifically arising from mate competition rather than differential survival alone
• B Sexual selection: differential reproductive success due to mate competition; two mechanisms: intrasexual selection (same-sex competition) and intersexual selection (mate choice by opposite sex)
• C Sexual selection is sometimes thought to operate mainly within mammalian species, rarely documented in birds or fish, despite extensively documented cases in peacocks, guppies, and stag beetles
• D Intrasexual selection is sometimes thought to specifically involve mate choice by the opposite sex, an inversion of actual terminology, since intersexual selection describes mate choice according to conventional understanding

Q38.

What is phylogenetics and how are molecular phylogenetics used today?

• A Classification of organisms is sometimes understood to be based mainly on external visual appearance, excluding the molecular sequence comparison methods that define modern phylogenetic analysis in many documented cases
• B Phylogenetics reconstructs evolutionary relationships between organisms; molecular phylogenetics uses DNA/protein sequences and algorithms to infer trees, revealing surprises like fungi being closer to animals than plants
• C Phylogenetics is sometimes thought to rely mainly on fossil evidence, with little role for DNA or protein data, despite maximum likelihood methods now forming the backbone of phylogenetic work according to conventional understanding
• D Molecular phylogenetics is sometimes thought to largely contradict traditional taxonomy, when in fact molecular data has mostly refined and supported it, revealing some unexpected relationships in routine practice overall

Q39.

What is the evolutionary significance of the Cambrian explosion?

• A The Cambrian explosion is sometimes considered to hold no real evolutionary significance, despite marking one of the most dramatic bursts of animal body-plan diversification in the fossil record
• B Rapid diversification of complex animal body plans ~541 million years ago; most major animal phyla appear within a few million years, possibly driven by rising oxygen levels and ecological opportunity
• C The Cambrian explosion is sometimes thought to have occurred very recently, within the last few thousand years, when it is reliably dated to roughly five hundred forty-one million years ago
• D The Cambrian explosion is sometimes thought to have affected exclusively photosynthetic plant lineages, when it specifically refers to the rapid diversification of complex animal phyla

Q40.

How does evolutionary medicine apply evolutionary theory to human disease?

• A Evolutionary theory is sometimes considered to hold no meaningful relevance to human disease, despite mismatch diseases, antibiotic resistance, and cancer as somatic evolution being explained through evolutionary frameworks
• B Evolutionary medicine applies evolutionary theory to understand mismatch diseases like obesity and Type 2 diabetes, antibiotic resistance, cancer as somatic evolution, and senescence patterns
• C Evolutionary medicine is sometimes thought to largely reject natural selection as a useful framework, when it relies centrally on natural selection to explain mismatch diseases and pathogen trade-offs
• D Human evolution is sometimes considered to have been largely complete since Homo sapiens first appeared, when human populations continue to undergo measurable ongoing natural selection today

Q41.

What are Hox genes and what do they reveal about animal evolution?

• A Hox genes are sometimes thought to function specifically in controlling flower colour pathways in plants, a role largely unrelated to their actual function specifying body segment identity in animals
• B Hox genes are homeotic transcription factors specifying body segment identity along the anterior-posterior axis in all bilateral animals; their conservation across phyla reveals deep homology
• C Hox genes are sometimes thought to be present mainly within vertebrate lineages, absent from invertebrates, despite being conserved and active across invertebrate phyla from flies to flatworms
• D Hox genes are sometimes thought to have been largely lost during evolution across most animal phyla, when in fact they remain remarkably conserved in sequence and expression across bilaterian phyla